The French and Iroquois Wars (Beaver Wars)

What were the French and Iroquois Wars?
The Beaver Wars, or the French and Iroquois Wars, were a series of conflicts in the mid-seventeenth century. The Iroquois tribes, who lived in the Northeastern United States, wanted to extend their territory in all directions and take over the fur trade between the tribes of the region and the European settlers. This competition for monopolization of the fur trade, which was heavily dependent on beaver pelts, became known as the Beaver Wars.

The Iroquois had trade relations with the Dutch and the British, who in turn, helped arm the natives with modern weapons. These weapons emboldened the Iroquois, leading to their fight for expansion. This series of wars were some of the bloodiest in American history.

Who fought in the Beaver Wars?
The Iroquois, who allied with the English and Dutch, fought the Huron and Algonquin tribes, who were backed by the French.

The tribes involved were the Iroquois group, Huron, Neutral Nation, Erie,  and Susquehannock.

Who were the Iroquois?
The Iroquois Confederation or Iroquois League was an association of Iroquois-speaking tribes located in the Northeastern United States, especially concentrated in the area that is now upstate New York. The Iroquois called themselves Haudenosaunee, meaning “people of the longhouse.” Not all Iroquois-speaking tribes were allied with the League.

The Iroquois Confederation was created as a result of European colonization, while the League was more for ceremonial and cultural reasons.

The original Five Nations of the Iroquois League were Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. In 1722, these five tribes were joined by the Tuscarora, and the group became the Six Nations.

Why was beaver fur so important?
By the time European colonists arrived in the New World, beaver fur hats were a widespread fashion trend in Europe. European beavers were hunted to near extinction for their furs, so when Europeans discovered the North American Beaver, they saw new opportunities to make money by importing beaver furs back to Europe.

The North American Beaver was especially prevalent in the Northeastern United States and Canada, encouraging European exploration and settlement in the region. The Native American tribes had hunted beaver for their meat and their fur, and when they found that Europeans sought beaver fur, they began trading with them. Native Americans exchanged the fur for advanced weapons, tools, beads, and other European goods, which were highly valued among the natives.

The competition for land where beavers were present led to conflicts between the native tribes, and with European settlers.

When were the French and Iroquois Wars?

The Beaver War conflicts lasted throughout the 1600s.  Conflicts began around 1610 and continued through the 1670s.
What happened during the Beaver Wars?

In 1610, Dutch settlers established a trading post on the edge of Iroquois territory, allowing them  access to European markets without needing a middleman. Previously, the French and their native allies had served as middlemen between Iroquois and the Dutch, so cutting out the French colonists angered the French, and the conflict began. The Iroquois began aggressively hunting, as it became more profitable for them.

In 1638, the Iroquois, pushed by the Mohawk leaders, began expanding their territory to gain access to more hunting grounds. They first moved east toward the Great Lakes, taking out the Wenro tribe. In 1641, the Mohawks attempted to make peace with the French, but the French refused, citing their alliance with the Huron tribe. In response, the Mohawks attacked the Huron. This conflict lasted until 1645, when the French offered peace and trade rights to the Iroquois. A year later, when the Iroquois  were ready to trade, the French refused. The Iroquois resumed the war.

The Dutch helped arm the Iroquois with guns around 1648, giving them a strong advantage over the Huron, who were the final barrier between Iroquois territory and the French. Once the Iroquois took the Huron, they began attacking the French.

In the 1650s, the Iroquois proceeded to attack and take the territories of the Neutral Nation and the Erie.

The Iroquois attacked the Susquehannock in 1663, and a war between them broke out, lasting 11 years. The Susquehannock were aided by the English, who supplied them with weapons. The war finally ended when the English switched their loyalties to the Iroquois.

Where were the French and Iroquois Wars?

These conflicts began around the Fingerlakes region of modern day upstate New York, where the Iroquois originated. The Iroquois first pushed westward, taking over the Great Lakes region. Once they had achieved that, the Iroquois moved northward into what is now Canada.

Native American Indian Removal and the Trail of Tears

What was the Indian Removal?

Indian Removal was the United States Government’s policy of relocating Native American Indian tribes from their territories east of the Mississippi to land west of the Mississippi in the early 1800s. Fueled by their desire to expand their colonies, government and military leaders had already been pushing Native American Indians westward for quite some time. Under Thomas Jefferson’s presidency, Native Americans were allowed to remain only if they assimilated into the American lifestyle.

Some tribes (Creek and Seminole) resisted and wars ensued, followed by treaties and generally, the loss of Native territories to the United States. In 1823, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that Native Americans could occupy land, but not hold its title.

Shortly after Andrew Jackson was elected president, he began pushing for the passing of the Indian Removal Act.

What was the Indian Removal Act of 1830

Signed by President Andrew Jackson on May 28, 1830, the Indian Removal Act of 1830 allowed the United States government to make treaties with Native American tribes, exchanging their land east of the Mississippi for land west of the Mississippi, essentially forcing the tribes out of their lands. The Act intended for voluntary relocation, but in reality, the tribal leaders were pressured and coerced into leaving.

The Act was controversial when it was introduced, and heavily debated before it passed.

Most Southern states supported the Act because it meant they could take over land occupied by the natives, in order to expand their crops. Georgia, in particular, had already been in dispute with the Cherokees over land boundaries. Many Americans in support of the Indian Removal Act believed that it would end conflict between Native Americans and the United States, thinking that United States expansion would end at the Mississippi River.

Which American Indian tribes were affected by the Indian Removal Act?

Though the Indian Removal Act applied to all Native American Tribes, it especially affected the larger Southeastern tribes, which were known as the 5 Civilized Tribes. These tribes were primarily located in Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi. Until this time, the tribes had been living as autonomous nations.

The 5 Civilized Tribes were given this nickname by European colonists because these tribes were willing to partially assimilate into American culture and integrate into their society.

The 5 Civilized Tribes:

Cherokee – Lived in Georgia, North and South Carolina, and East Tennessee. The Cherokee Nation is the largest remaining tribe left in the United States

Chickasaw – Originally located in Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee.

Choctaw – Lived in the Mississippi River valley in the states of Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana

Muscogee/Creek – Originally lived in Alabama, Georgia, Florida, South Carolina

Seminole – Originally from Florida, though made up of Natives from Georgia, Mississippi, and Alabama. The Seminoles had integrated with African Americans who escaped from slavery in South Carolina and Georgia.

What was Indian Territory?

The concept of Indian Territory was started by the British Crown in 1763, when they agreed to stop colonization at the Appalachian Mountains, later pushing that back to the Mississippi River. The Indian Intercourse Act of 1834 defined Indian Territory to the region West of the Mississippi, which is now Oklahoma. The native tribes east of the Mississippi were driven out of their territories into Indian Territory.

What treaties were signed between Native American tribes and the United States?

• Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek – September 27, 1830 – Choctaws in Mississippi sold their land east of the river to the U.S. Government. They were paid and given land west of the river in Indian Territory. This was the first removal treaty under the Indian Removal Act.
• Treaty of Cusseta – March 24, 1832 – The Creeks gave up their claims to land east of the Mississippi River, and individual families were granted lands, while some were moved west of the River. The Creeks faced conflict with settlers and squatters, and were eventually deported to Indian Territory.
• Treaty of Pontotoc Creek – October 20, 1832 – This agreement promised the Chickasaw tribes payment for their lands, though they were not paid in full for many years to follow. Once in Indian Territory, the Chickasaws merged with the Choctaws.
• Treaty of New Echota – December 29, 1835 – Cherokees were moved to Indian Territory despite their disapproval of the treaty and refusal to sign the agreement. They even wrote a petition against the movement and gathered 15,000 signatures. Their forced move became known as the Trail of Tears.
• Treaty of Payne’s Landing – May 9, 1832 – The Seminoles agreed to check out the land in Arkansas Territory, to see whether it was suitable. The chiefs inspected the land and signed a treaty in which they agreed to relocate to West of the Mississippi, though many people involved said they were coerced into signing. The chiefs also said they did not have the power to make that decision for their entire tribe. The Seminoles continued to refuse relocation, which led to the Second Seminole War.

What was the Trail of Tears?

The Trail of Tears refers to the forced movement of Native American tribes from their territories east of the Mississippi River to an area west of the River. The term sometimes refers specifically to the movement of the Cherokee tribe.

On their journey, Native Americans faced starvation, disease, exhaustion, and for many, death. The journey on the Trail of Tears is now considered an act of genocide. In all, over 100,000 Native Americans were expelled from their lands and forced to make the journey on the Trail of Tears. Of that 100,000, approximately 15,000 died. About a quarter (4,000) of the 17,000 Cherokees that made the trip died from the harsh conditions of the trip.

Where was the Trail of Tears?

The Trail of Tears traveled through Georgia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Alabama, Tennessee, Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas to Oklahoma. Today, the Trail of Tears is a National Historic Trail, which is part of the National Parks Service.

The War of 1812

What was the War of 1812?

The War of 1812 was a military conflict between the United States and the British Empire, fought between 1812 and 1815. Outside the United States, it is sometimes known as the Anglo-American War of 1812. The major causes of the war were the United States’ desire for westward expansion, American opposition to the British practice of “impressment,” and British restrictions on American trade with France. Americans had also grown upset with perceived insults from the British, such as the Chesapeake Affair of 1807, when the British fired upon an American ship, the Chesapeake, off the coast of Northern Virginia in order to retrieve deserting British sailors.

Why did the United States’ desire for westward expansion lead to war?

By 1812, the United States had expanded a great deal since it concluded its war of independence from the British Empire in 1783. The Americans wished to expand into their territories west of the Appalachian Mountains, including the Northwest Territory and the lands included in the Louisiana Purchase. However, the British had armed and supported Native Americans who opposed American expansion in those territories. The British had long opposed American expansion into the territories because the British saw Native Americans as providing a buffer between the settled American lands and British holdings in Canada. Even during the war, the British supported creating an independent Native state in the lands of the Northwest Territory.

What was “impressment”?

At the time of the war, the British Empire was involved in an extensive conflict with France, known as the Napoleonic Wars. To further its war effort, the British Empire expanded its Navy considerably. This expansion required that the British field about 140,000 sailors. To obtain these sailors, the British would board American vessels, seize British-born American citizens, and force them into service in the British Navy. Americans believed that these former British citizens were legal immigrants to the United States; the British considered these Americans to be deserters. Sometimes impressment practices were sloppy, and many native-born Americans were also forced into service on British ships for long periods of time before being returned to America.

Why did the British Empire block American trade with France?

Because the British were at war with France, the British began imposing restrictions on American trade with France in 1807. The Americans considered themselves neutrals in the conflict and believed they had the right to trade with either Britain or France. The British opposed American trade with France due to what the British viewed as wartime expediency.

Who supported the War of 1812?

Americans in the industrial Northeast largely opposed the war, while Americans in the South largely supported the war. Americans who supported the war were labeled by their opponents as “War Hawks,” a term that later came to be applied to Americans who supported other wars. Notable leaders of the War Hawks included Speaker of the House Henry Clay, Congressman John Calhoun, and President James Madison. Support for the war was sharply divided along regional lines.

How did the War of 1812 begin?

On June 1, 1812, President James Madison sent a message to Congress stating American grievances against the British. Soon afterwards, the House of Representatives voted in favor of a declaration of war by a vote of 79 to 49, and the Senate voted to declare war by a vote of 19 to 13. Although a new Prime Minister, Lord Liverpool, had come to power in Britain a few weeks earlier and sought better relations with the United States, word of the new British government had not reached the United States due to the slow transatlantic communications that existed at the time.

How did the Americans approach the War of 1812?

The Americans were not prepared for the war, and were largely routed by the British. American soldiers were of militia quality and lacked well-trained, experienced leaders. The United States attempted to invade British Canada twice, but failed. In turn, the United States lost partial control of what is now Michigan. The British dominated the Americans at sea, and due to their powerful navy, were able to land troops in Washington, D.C. At this time, the British famously burned the White House, the Capitol building, and other notable buildings in Washington.

How was the War of 1812 concluded?

As the war continued, Americans became more experienced. Americans regained some captured territories and won some minor victories against the British. The warring nations reached a stalemate and concluded their war with the Treaty of Ghent, signed on December 24, 1814.

Did the Americans win any major victories?

Due to slow transatlantic communications, officials in the Americas did not know the war had ended until about two months after the Treaty of Ghent was signed. Not knowing that the war was over, British officials in the Americas launched a campaign to invade Louisiana. However, they were repelled by American forces led by General Andrew Jackson in the Battle of New Orleans. The British suffered heavy losses, and the battle is generally considered the greatest American victory of the war. Unfortunately for both sides, the battle was fought after the war had officially ended.

Historic Route 66

What is Route 66?

Known by many nicknames, including the “Mother Road,” “Main Street of America,” and “The Great American Highway,” Route 66 was one of the first cross-country roads in the United States, as well as one of the most influential.

Where is the Historic Route 66?

The original Route 66 traveled from Chicago, Illinois through Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, ending in Los Angeles, California.

The route was constructed in large part along the old Beale Wagon Road, which travelers used to get through New Mexico and Arizona to California during the Gold Rush and westward expansion.

Why was Route 66 constructed?

With the rise of the automobile after Henry Ford’s innovations with the Ford Model-T starting in 1908, cars became a common modern convenience. They allowed freedom and mobility of Americans, but only so far as the roads would allow. The idea for public highways began circulating. Throughout the ’20s, the automobile shaped American culture, shrinking the country and allowing for more movement. Though the railroad was able to transport passengers, the railroad proved limited, mainly restricted to flat places.

Cyrus Avery, a businessman from Tulsa, Oklahoma pushed for the creation of a road linking Chicago to Los Angeles, two major centers of commerce. In the early 1920s, government legislation of public roads began, with a plan for a national highway system, and the route from Chicago to California was designated on November 11, 1926. The route connected small towns to big cities, giving rural areas increased access. Only a small portion of the route was paved. Avery pushed for the entire road to be paved, and it became the first completely paved highway in 1938.

When did Route 66 gain popularity?

The U.S. Highway Association, whose first president was John Woodruff in 1927, along with Cyrus Avery worked to promote Route 66. One of their most successful publicity campaigns was the Bunion Derby, which was a cross-country race between New York City and Los Angeles – the longest race in history. Will Rogers and other celebrities cheered the runners on along the way. Route 66 is now known as the Will Rogers Highway for this reason.

The Dust Bowl in the 1930s pushed people westward toward California, for farming families from Oklahoma, Arkansas, Kansas, and Texas, to find agricultural work. Much of the mass migration followed the route, helping it gain popularity.

The popularity of Route 66 improved the economy of the small towns along its route during the Great Depression, leading to the rise of mom-and-pop businesses, gas stations, and restaurants. Motels sprang up along the route, as convenient stops for motorists – the word “motel” is derived from the combination of “hotel” and “motorist.”

During the 1950s, roadside attractions began popping up along the route, like Native American curio shops, teepee motels, reptile farms, and themed restaurants. These attractions encouraged travel on Route 66, making it an entertaining family road, creating the concept of the roadtrip.

What was the fate of Route 66?

Over the entire of existence for Route 66, its path continued to change and evolve. Many sections of the road were notoriously dangerous for motorists. Some were  even referred to as “Bloody 66.” Over the years, Route 66 was straightened to remove these dangerous curves.

Parts of Route 66 were rerouted as part of this straightening process, which resulted in some cities being bypassed, and a shorter drive for travelers along the route. In 1956, the Interstate Highway Act was signed by President Eisenhower, which created a new system of expressways across the country. Route 66 was moved around, repaved, and ultimately decommissioned.

Route 66 was divided up and made into several different Interstates in the new system:

Interstate 55 – From Chicago, Illinois to St. Louis, Missouri

Interstate 44 – From St. Louis to Oklahoma City

Interstate 40 – From Oklahoma City to Barstow, California (the longest stretch of former Route 66)

Interstate 15 – From Barstow, California to San Bernadino, California

Interstate 210/10 & State Route 2 – From San Bernadino, California to Santa Monica, California

Many of the original windy roads of Route 66 became “Business loops,” and some are now just local roads.

What were the effects of Route 66?

Not only did Route 66 help Americans travel across the United States, it also shaped the American culture of the 20^th century. Route 66 gave birth to the first ever fast-food restaurants and drive-ins, including the first McDonald’s in Barstow, California, American car culture, service stations, the Great American Roadtrip, motels, and more. These aspects of Route 66 became emblematic of Americana.

For the small towns along its roads, Route 66 brought business and purpose. Boom towns sprung up, and once the road was rerouted and decommissioned, many of these towns were abandoned, becoming ghost towns.

A revitalization of Route 66 and its small towns began with Route 66 Associations, which began forming in 1987 to preserve the history of the route. These Associations began putting up “Historic Route 66” signs along the way. In 1999, the National Route 66 Preservation Bill was signed in an effort to protect this piece of American history. Route 66 saw a surge in traffic after Pixar’s 2006 movie, Cars, which takes place along Route 66.

What attractions are located along Route 66?

Wigwam motel in Holbrook, Arizona, and San Bernadino, California: Sleep in one of the few remaining teepee motels.

Petrified Forest National Wilderness Area, Arizona: One of the largest collections of petrified wood in the world.

Painted Desert, Arizona: Multi-colored rock formations that allow visitors to see the many layers and types of rock.

Meteor Crater, Arizona: The site of a meteor crash that happened over 50,000 years ago.

Jack Rabbit Trading Post, Arizona: An original trading post from Route 66’s heyday, Jack Rabbit is now a convenience store and Native American curio shop, famous for the many billboards advertising the shop.

The Big Texan in Amarillo, Texas: Heavily advertised roadside attraction and restaurant that offers a free 72 oz steak to anyone who can finish it in under an hour.

Leaning Water Tower of Groom, Texas: America’s own leaning tower.

Cadillac Ranch in Amarillo, Texas: An interactive art exhibit consisting of 10 Cadillacs from the 1950s and 1960s, buried nose-down in the ground. Travelers stop by the open field and add their own graffiti to the classic cars.

Chain of Rocks Bridge, over the Mississippi River between Illinois and Missouri: This pedestrian and bike bridge has a 22 degree bend.

Transcontinental Railroad in the United States

What was the Transcontinental Railroad?

The transcontinental railroad was a series of railroads built from east of the Mississippi, across the continent to the Pacific Ocean. There were 5 main railroad lines built during the 1800s that are considered transcontinental railroads, but the major line was created by the Central and Union Pacific Railroad Companies and ran between Sacramento, California and Council Bluffs. This line is known as the First Continental Railroad.

How did the transcontinental railroad affect the United States?

The Transcontinental Railroad was instrumental in the development and westward expansion of the United States, both uniting and dividing the country. The transcontinental railroad greatly shaped the nation, from the Native Americans, to wealthy Americans, and poor immigrants.

Why was the transcontinental railroad built?

Not long after the invention of the steam engine in the late 1700s, the United States’ first steam locomotive carried its first passengers and goods Maryland in 1830. The Oregon Trail initiated the westward expansion movement beginning in 1841, demonstrating the need for faster, safer transportation methods.

In 1845, Asa Whitney of New York devised the first concrete plan for funding of the railroad, by government land grants to construction companies willing to lay the tracks. He presented this information to Congress, but the plan was rejected.

The discovery of gold in Oregon Territory followed by the California Gold Rush and the Nevada Silver Rush dramatically increased westward expansion in the 1850s. Years later, after lobbying Congress, the Pacific Railroad Bill was passed in 1862, providing grants to Central Pacific and Union Pacific to begin constructing the transcontinental railroad.

Who were the main figures involved in the creation of the transcontinental railroad?

Theodore Judah: Created a construction plan for the potential railroad’s path through the Sierra Nevada, conducting surveys of the land. He pushed for completion of the project and found investors to support it. After contractual and financial disputes with the investors, Judah left to find new investors, but became sick and died.

Collis P. Huntington: Contacted by Theodore Judah, Huntington agreed to invest in the railroad project, bringing in four more investors, who would become known as the Big Four.

The Big Four:

• Mark Hopkins
• James Bailey
• Charles Crocker
• Leland Stanford

The Big Four, combined with Huntington and Judah became the Board of Directors for Central Pacific Railroad Company.

Leland Stanford: Shortly after the Pacific Railroad Bill was passed, Stanford became governor of California. Eventually funds Stanford University in Palo Alto, California.

Charles Crocker: Convinced Central Pacific’s foreman to use Chinese labor to speed up construction.

Thomas C. Durant: Appointed Vice President and general manager of Union Pacific Railroad, after illegally gaining a congrolling interest in the company. Durant bribes Congress for revision of the Pacific Railroad Act in Union Pacific’s favor, granting his company extra resources and funds. Durant formed a company called Credit Mobilier to fraudulently profit from the government’s grants.

Abraham Lincoln: As President, Lincoln signed the Pacific Railroad Bill which allowed Union Pacific and Central Pacific to receive government land and funds in exchange for laying the railroad tracks. Lincoln also brought in Oakes Ames to help manage Union Pacific.

Oakes Ames: Took control of Union Pacific from Durant. During Credit Mobilier’s stock dividend, Ames provides stocks at discount rates to his friends in Congress, which created a scandal when it came out. Ames became the scapegoat for this scandal, and the only one punished when the scandal comes out.

Jay Cooke: Banker and investor in the Northern Pacific Railroad company, until his bank declared bankruptcy in the Panic of 1873, leading to the Great Railroad Strike of 1877.

What were the main lines of the transcontinental railroads in the United States?

The Central Pacific Railroad traveled from Sacramento California, tunneling through the Sierra Nevada Mountains to Promontory, Utah.

The Union Pacific Railroad was constructed from Council Bluffs, Iowa to meet the Central Pacific Railroad at Promontory, Utah. These two lines are commonly known as the First Transcontinental Railroad.

The Northern Pacific Railroad operated in the far northern United States, from Minnesota to Washington, connecting the Great Lakes to the Puget Sound.

The Southern Pacific Railroad was founded to connect San Francisco to San Diego in California, but was bought by the Big Four, who merged the company into Union Pacific. The Southern line ran from California to Texas.

The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway traveled across the southwestern United States, from New Mexico to Kansas and then Colorado.

What was the Golden Spike Ceremony?

The Golden Spike Ceremony in Promontory, Utah was the celebration of the joining of the Central Pacific Railroad line with the Union Pacific Railroad’s line in Utah. During the ceremony, Leland Stanford drove the final spike into the ground, signifying the completion of the first transcontinental railroad. The spike used for the ceremony was a golden spike. The ceremony may have been the first broadcast media event, as telegraph stations aired each hammer strike.

What were the effects of the transcontinental railroad?

The transcontinental railroad had major effects on America, both good and bad. The railroads helped westward expansion, making travel across the continent safer and quicker. What was once a journey of around six months became a short trip of less than one week. Globalization was one of the main benefits of the transcontinental railroad, resulting in a smaller world that is easier to explore.

Immigrants:

The transcontinental railroad employed many immigrants, who performed hard labor for low wages. Though the early laborers were mainly of Irish descent, Chris Crocker decided that hiring Chinese immigrants would help speed up Central Pacific’s process of laying the track. About 6,000 Chinese laborers were hired in 1865, making up about 80% of the laborforce. By 1867, the Chinese workers held a strike for better wages and shorter hours. Central Pacific responded by cutting off food and communication to the Chinese camps. The Chinese laborers returned to work after one week without any change in their conditions.

Though Chinese immigrants were essential to the formation of the country, they faced discrimination even after the completion of the railroad. In 1882, when the United States faced an economic depression, the government passed the Chinese Exclusion Act, which restricted Chinese immigration, to cut down on competition for jobs. The Act was only meant to last 10 years, but it was extended another 10 years, then made permanent in 1904.

Native Americans:

Native Americans were also negatively affected by the transcontinental railroad. Though native tribes once occupied most of the continent, colonization forced them into less desirable regions of the country. With the construction of the transcontinental railroad, the land once left for Native Americans was taken over. On several occasions, the native tribes that were affected fought back against the railroad companies.

The Sand Creek Massacre of 1864 was an attack on the Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians by the U.S. Military, killing primarily women and children. The following year, the Cheyenne Arapaho, and Sioux retaliated in Julesburg, Colorado.

In 1866, Cheyenne warriors destroy part of the railroad tracks, and after a train derailed on the tracks, the tribe killed all passengers except one.

A Sioux leader, called Red Cloud, fought back and won the Powder River Treaty, which granted the tribe their sacred hunting ground forever. This became known as Red Cloud’s War, one of the only times that a native tribe won against the United States. In 1889, the U.S. Government took the Sioux territory in the Powder River Valley, despite the treaty, to allow for more white settlement.

The Plains Indians were pushed into small pockets of land allotted to them in the form of reservations. Only a fraction of the native buffalo remained.

Government distrust:

The shady deals both Durant and Oakes made during their years of power over the Union Pacific Railroad caused scandals when the truth came out. The lack of government supervision, bribes given by lobbyists for political influence, and the stock deals to Congressmen who were friends of Oakes severely damaged the public perception of their government.